Ancient Macedonia. Reign of Philip II. Philip, King of Macedon The Campaigns of Philip II of Macedon

12.05.2024

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Macedonia lay to the north of Thessaly, bordering Thrace and Illyria and being cut off from the Aegean Sea by Greek colonies . The population of the country, apparently related to the Greeks, but still quite rude and uneducated, retained the old forms in their way of life, but the clan that reigned here attributed to itself a purely Hellenic origin. Thanks to the neighboring Greek colonies, higher culture gradually began to penetrate into Macedonia, and its kings began to even the desire to become closer to the Greek world. To this end, they wanted, firstly, take possession of the seashore, over which the large Greek states fought among themselves; secondly, to get from the Greeks recognition for their people of Hellenic origin and thirdly, interfere in the internal affairs of Greece. Such a policy began to be discovered in Macedonia during the Peloponnesian War; but the real founder of Macedonian power was the king Philip, who fulfilled the aspirations of his predecessors on the Macedonian throne

184. Philip II of Macedon

In his youth, Philip lived for several years in Thebes in the house of Epaminondas as a hostage taken by the Thebans, who at that time intervened, among other things, in the internal affairs of Macedonia. And in Thebes, and in other Greek cities, where Philip also managed to visit, he mastered Greek education and became well acquainted with both the military art of the Greeks and the political state of the country. An unusually cunning and cunning man, he was very subtle politician who knew how to “deceive husbands with oaths, like children are deceived with toys”; at the same time, his foresight, combined with great persistence and energy, made him a wonderful commander. In Macedonia there was a good army, consisting of cavalry and infantry: nobility served in the cavalry, commoners, mainly peasants, served in the infantry; Philip improved this army, organizing it according to the Greek model and introducing one important change into it. His warriors, armed with large shields that covered the entire body, and very long spears (sarissas), lined up several rows deep, with the rear warriors placing their spears on the shoulders of those in front, and all phalanx, - as the detachment built in this way was called, it was one cohesive whole, surprisingly adapted to the onslaught on the enemy. In addition to the army, Philip also took care of the funds that he needed not only to maintain the army, but also for bribery of necessary persons in foreign countries. Knowing the corruption of contemporary politicians, he said that there was hardly a city wall so high that a donkey with a bag of gold would not step over it. Having repelled the raids of neighboring barbarians and conquered part of their lands, Philip undertook subordination of the Macedonian-Thracian coast to its power and, taking advantage of the discord taking place in Greece, in a short time conquered all Greek cities the Chalcis peninsula and the Thracian coast up to the Hellespont, at the same time establishing relations with the cities of the Propontis up to Byzantium inclusive. Soon after this, the Greeks themselves gave the Macedonian king a reason to interfere in their internal affairs.

185. Holy War

The reason for Philip's intervention in Greek affairs was the so-called Holy war. Theban hegemony in Central Greece met a very unsympathetic attitude towards itself in Phocis, neighboring Boeotia, and the Thebans, having found fault with the fact that the Phocians had plowed a plot of land dedicated to Apollo, obtained from the Delphic Amphictyony the imposition of a huge fine on Phokis. The Phocians did not want to submit to this sentence and, in order to defend themselves from the Thebans and Thessalians, who were entrusted with carrying out the sentence, captured the treasures kept in the Delphic temple, and the funds acquired in this way amounted to a large army of mercenaries, rushing to Phocis from all parts of Greece (355).

The war began with the invasion of the Phocians into neighboring regions and, among other things, into Thessaly, where at that time there was their own strife. Party hostile to Phokis, turned to Philip for help, and he came to Thessaly with his army. At first he was defeated, but then he defeated the Phocians (352). The result of his victory was that Thessaly had to recognize Macedonian hegemony, and from there, through Thermopylae, it was easy for Philip to penetrate into Central Greece. From this, however, the latter was then saved by the Athenians, who occupied Thermopylae, and the Spartans, who, together with the Achaeans, supported Phocis. The Holy War, that is, in essence, the struggle between Phocis and Boeotia, continued for several more years [until 346], until both countries brought themselves to complete ruin.

Philip II took the throne of Macedonia very young - at 23 years old. In 359 BC. e. Macedonia was threatened by an Illyrian invasion. After the death of King Perdikkas III, the country was left without a ruler, with the exception of Perdikkas III's young son Amyntas. Macedonia's neighbors are Athens, whose influence extended to the north of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Thracians were ready to subordinate a small and weak state to their influence. However, the brother of the murdered king Philip managed to settle the matter by paying off the Thracians with gold, and from Athens with the city of Amphipolis, which they extremely needed. In gratitude for this, the people proclaimed Philip king instead of the young Amyntas.

Realizing the need to expand the state, Philip started with the army. In his youth, having been a hostage in Thebes, he learned a thing or two from one of the best strategists of the time, Epaminondas. It was King Philip II who invented the famous Macedonian phalanx, modernized by lengthening the spear. The sovereign also paid a lot of attention to artillery, for the creation of which he invited the best mechanics from the city of Syracuse.

Having such a strong army in reserve, Philip II could seriously think about turning small Macedonia into a rich and influential state. Athens bitterly regretted that, flattered by the rich bribe, they ignored such a nimble young man. Philip took Amphipolis from them, taking a number of other cities subject to Athens, and immediately gave some of them to his eastern neighbors - the Chalkidian union of cities led by Olynthos, preventing their intention to support Athens. Then Philip, taking advantage of the dispute between Athens and Thebes over the island of Euboea, captured it, along with the Pangean region and gold mines. Using the wealth that was in his hands, Philip began to build a fleet and, through trade, began to actively influence Greece. As a result of the rapid actions of Philip II, the Chalkidian Union was completely cut off from Central Greece.

In the 4th century. BC e. Greece was weakened by the Peloponnesian War and the crisis of the polis. Not a single Greek state could lay claim to the role of a unifier or peacemaker. The Greeks made claims to each other with or without reason, each time new alliances were created, new enemies appeared. In 355 BC. e. The Holy War broke out and lasted until 346 BC. e. Residents of the city of Phocis unexpectedly seized the lands belonging to the temple of Apollo. Thebes tried to curb the sacrileges. However, the Phocians responded by seizing the temple of Apollo at Delphi and using the stolen money to hire an army of 20,000. Since Macedonia and Hellas believed in the same gods, Philip II, at the request of Thebes, immediately acted as an ardent defender of the offended Apollo. Despite a number of setbacks, Philip defeated the Phocian troops in Thessaly (352 BC) and liberated Delphi. 3 thousand prisoners were drowned in the sea to atone for sacrilege, and the body of their deceased military leader Onomarchus was crucified on the cross. Now was the time to punish the criminal city of Phocis. However, Athens, quickly realizing that the Macedonians simply wanted to get into Central Greece, stood up to defend the only route - the Thermopylae Pass.

Philip II, deciding not to tempt fate, turned north. For a long time he had been looking with interest at the rich Olynthus, which now found itself surrounded on all sides by Macedonian lands, and said: “Either the Olynthians must leave their city, or I must leave Macedonia.” Having quickly captured the small towns of the Chalkidian League, the Macedonians besieged Olynthos. The siege lasted a year. Thanks to Philip's diplomacy, the help from Athens that the Chalcidians had pleaded for was late, and the city was taken and destroyed in 348 BC. e.

Now the Athenians, who valued the remnants of their influence in Thrace, agreed to make peace with Macedonia (Philocrates’ peace of 346 BC) and withdrew the army from Thermopylae. All cunning plans to save Phocis were shattered by the deceit, treachery and gold of the Macedonian. Phocis fell, and its votes in Amphictyony (the union of Greek city-states - guardians of the temple of Apollo in Delphi) went to Philip, who now, as a Hellenic, could intervene in Greek affairs legally. In addition, part of the Greek fortifications on the border of Central Greece and Thermopylae passed to the Macedonian. From now on, the passage to Central Greece was always open to the new owner.

Principles of polis life in the 4th century. BC e. began to collapse. And then, completely unexpectedly, Heraclides appeared (a descendant of Hercules, it was from him that Philip II counted his family), who could take on the role of a unifier or a universal enemy, which would also unite the policies. After the victory over Phocis, Philip's popularity in the cities increased.

In all policies there was a struggle between supporters and opponents of the Macedonian king.

The best Athenian orators, Isocrates and Aeschines, supported Philip, believing that he was the great personality who would revive ancient Hellas if he united it under his strong rule. For the sake of the greatness of Greece, they were ready to say goodbye to the independence of their native city. Isocrates argued that Philip's hegemony would be a blessing because he himself was a Hellenic and a descendant of Hercules. Philip II generously presented his supporters with gold, rightly believing that “there is no city wall so high that a donkey loaded with gold could not step over it.”

Philip's opponent, the leader of the anti-Macedonian party, the Athenian orator Demosthenes, called on the Greeks to fight against the aggressive policy of the Macedonian king. He called Philip a treacherous barbarian seeking to take over Greece. However, it was not for the Greeks, who had long forgotten what honor was, to reproach Philip for treachery, dishonesty, deceit, dishonesty and lust for power. How many allies betrayed by them and opponents who believed the false promises of Athens left on its historical path, striving for power!

Despite the successes of Philip's supporters, his opponents managed to gain the upper hand. Demosthenes was able to convince Athens, and with them other Greek cities, of the need to repel the hypocritical and aggressive Macedonian. He achieved the creation of an anti-Macedonian coalition of Greek city states.

The cunning Philip decided to strike at the Thracian Bosporus and Hellespont straits in order to cut off Central Greece from its Black Sea possessions. He besieged Byzantium and the Persian city of Perinth. However, this time, having neutralized the supporters of Macedonia, Athens managed to provide assistance to Byzantium. Perinthos was helped by the indignant Persian king Darius III. Philip retreated (340 BC). It was a tangible defeat. Central Greece could rejoice. Philip decided not to stir up this hornet's nest for now, leaving his supporters, gold and time to act. His wait-and-see policy bore excellent results. Greece could not live in peace for long. In 399 BC. e. The 4th Holy War began. This time, the inhabitants of the city of Amfissa, supported by Athens, encroached on the lands of the Delphic temple. Amphictyony, at the suggestion of Aeschines, a supporter of Macedonia, remembering the zealous defender of Delphi, turned to Philip II with a request to intercede for the offended deity. Philip rushed faster than the wind to Central Greece, effortlessly punished Amphissa and, unexpectedly for everyone and even for his Thessalian friends, took possession of the city of Elatea near Kefissos, which was the key to Boeotia and Attica.

Panic began in the Allied camp. Thebes, which found itself directly in front of the army of Philip II, trembled with fear. However, the unperturbed Demosthenes, who arrived in the city, managed to raise the morale of the citizens and persuaded them to join the anti-Macedonian alliance, headed by the long-time opponents of Thebes - Athens.

The united army moved against the Macedonian king. Philip II defined his tactics even earlier: “I retreated like a ram in order to hit harder with my horns.” The opportunity to strike after two unsuccessful battles presented itself on August 2, 338 BC. e. at Chaeronea. Alexander, the future Tsar Alexander the Great, took part in this battle for the first time.

The Battle of Chaeronea ended the conquest of Greece by Macedonia. All Greeks, and first of all the Athenians, expected bloody reprisals and mourned their ancient cities in advance. But Philip treated the vanquished surprisingly gently. He did not demand surrender and offered them an alliance. Greece looked at such a diplomatic, educated and generous Philip with admiration. The offensive nickname “barbarian” was forgotten, and everyone immediately remembered that he was Heraclides.

In 337 BC. e. On the initiative of Philip II, a pan-Greek “congress” was convened in Corinth (Pericles’ dream came true!), which formed the Panhellenic Union - only Sparta was not included in it - and declared Philip the hegemon of Greece. And in vain Demosthenes in his time frightened the Athenians: “What he (Philip) hates most of all is our free institutions. after all, he knows very well that if he subjugates all nations to his power, he will not firmly own anything as long as you have the rule of people.” Philip left the political system of the poleis unchanged, and the proclaimed Sacred Peace (finally peace!) forbade them to interfere in each other's affairs. Moreover, for the triumph of the pan-Greek idea and the unity of the Greeks, the Panhellenic Union declared war on the Persian state, appointing Philip II as autocrat strategist.

But he did not have time to start a new campaign. In 336 BC e. Philip was killed. Alexander, who was so little like his father, was to continue his work. If Philip was a genius of diplomacy, then Alexander became the deity of war.

Philip II took the sons of noble compatriots into his retinue in order to accustom them to work and military duties, mercilessly punishing them for their tendency to effeminacy and flattery. So, he ordered to beat one young man who left the ranks without permission, wanting to quench his thirst, and executed another because he did not obey the order not to take off his weapons and tried to gain the favor of the king through flattery and servility.

Having won the victory over the Athenians at Chaeronea, Philip was very proud of himself. But so that vanity would not blind him too much, he ordered his servant to say to him every morning: “King, you are a man.”

There are three versions about how it happened and who organized the murder of King Philip. The first of them, the official one, is well stated by the historian Diodorus.

In the summer of 336 BC. e. In the city of Egi (the ancestral capital of the Argead dynasty) a magnificent wedding was being prepared. The sister of Prince Alexander was given in marriage to the King of Epirus. He was the prince's uncle, for Alexander's mother, Olympias, was an Epirus princess.

At the wedding feast, which continued without interruption for several days, a continuous line of actors, envoys and guests performed, wishing happiness to the newlyweds and presenting them with expensive gifts. On the last day, ceremonial festive games were to take place in the theater...

As morning approached, a magnificent procession moved through the festively excited crowd that had gathered since the night. Guests, ambassadors, and Macedonian military leaders walked ahead; they carried images of twelve gods and the thirteenth - the creator of the Macedonian Empire in the Balkans, the powerful King Philip.

King Philip himself walked behind, between his son Alexander and the royal groom.

Formidable guards surrounded the procession. Philip passed the gates of the theater, and the audience filling the stands burst into cheers. Suddenly a man made his way through the guards, a curved sword snatched from under his clothes flashed - and King Philip fell.

There was a commotion, the killer started to run, but stumbled, and then the guards overtook him and pinned him to the ground with spears. The guards identified the killer as court officer Pausanias from the Shield-Bearing Guard. Philip died in the arms of his nineteen-year-old heir Alexander. The death of Philip did not mean that Alexander would necessarily take the throne.

This victory was highly appreciated by the commander Antipater, the most influential of the king’s courtiers. And now he made a speech to the crowd in support of the prince.

Alexander, without wasting any time, occupied the fortress together with his loyal soldiers and announced his assumption of power.

The murderer's corpse was crucified, and an official investigation began, which came to the conclusion that the cause of the assassination attempt was Pausanias's personal revenge. When the homosexual Attalus, one of Philip's noblest confidants and commanders, abused a young Macedonian, Pausanias tried to resort to the king's protection.

However, Philip refused to prosecute the rapist. And the vengeful highlander decided to kill the king. True, this was a long time ago. But Philip’s political opponents did not miss the opportunity to stir up Pausanias’s cold sense of revenge. Finding out the names of the criminals was not difficult.

He made campaigns against the Thracians, Illyrians and the rebellious large Greek cities. Finally, he managed to intimidate all of Greece, the rear was strengthened and the Persian campaign could begin...

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Philip II went down in history more as the father of Alexander the Great, although he carried out the most difficult, initial task of strengthening the Macedonian state and the actual unification of Greece within the framework of the Corinthian League. Subsequently, his son used the strong, battle-hardened army formed by Philip to create his vast, but quickly collapsed, empire.

Reign

Silver tetradrachm of Philip II from the museum in Thessaloniki

Demonstrating extraordinary diplomatic talent, Philip quickly dealt with his enemies. He bribed the Thracian king and convinced him to execute Pausanias, one of the contenders for the throne. Then he defeated another contender, Argeus, who enjoyed the support of Athens. To protect himself from Athens, Philip promised them Amphipolis, and thus saved Macedonia from internal turmoil. Having strengthened and strengthened, he soon captured Amphipolis, managed to establish control over the gold mines and begin minting gold coins. Having created, thanks to these means, a large standing army, the basis of which was the famous Macedonian phalanx, Philip at the same time built a fleet, was one of the first to widely use siege and throwing engines, and also skillfully resorted to bribery (his expression is known: “ A donkey loaded with gold will take any fortress"). This gave Philip all the greater advantages because his neighbors, on the one hand, were unorganized barbarian tribes, on the other, the Greek polis world, which was in deep crisis, as well as the Persian Achaemenid Empire, which was already decaying at that time.

Having established his power on the Macedonian coast, Philip in 353 BC. e. intervenes for the first time in Greek affairs, taking the side of the Delphic coalition (the main members of which were the Thebans and Thessalians) against the “sacrileges” of the Phocians and the Athenians who supported them in the “Holy War”. The result was the subjugation of Thessaly, entry into the Delphic Amphictyony and the acquisition of the de facto role of arbiter in Greek affairs. This paved the way for the future conquest of Greece.

The chronology of Philip's wars and campaigns, as recorded by Diodorus Siculus, is as follows:

359 BC e. - campaign against the Paeonians. The defeated Paeonians admitted their dependence on Philip.
358 BC e. - a campaign against the Illyrians with an army of 11 thousand soldiers. The Illyrians fielded approximately equal forces. In a stubborn battle, the leader Bardill and 7 thousand of his fellow tribesmen fell. After the defeat, the Illyrians ceded the previously captured Macedonian cities.
357 BC e. - the city of Amphipolis, a large trading center on the Thracian coast, was stormed. The Greek city of Pydna on the southern coast of Macedonia was conquered.
356 BC e. - after the siege, the city of Potidea on the Chalkidiki Peninsula was occupied and transferred to the city of Olynthos, the inhabitants were sold into slavery. The region of Crenides, where the fortress of Philippi was founded, was recaptured from the Thracians. The gold mines of Mount Pangea in the captured area allowed Philip to increase his army.
355 BC e. - the Greek cities of Abdera and Maroneia on the Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea were captured.
354 BC e. - after the siege, the Greek city of Methon surrendered. During the siege, an arrow shot by a certain Aster damaged Philip's right eye. All residents were evicted, the city was razed, Aster was crucified.
353 - 352 BC e. - participation in the Holy War. The Phocians are defeated and driven out of Thessaly into central Greece. Philip subjugates Thessaly.
352 - 351 BC e. - trip to Thrace. The Thracians ceded the disputed territories to Macedonia.
350 - 349 BC e. - a successful campaign in Illyria and against the Paeonians.
349 - 348 BC e. - capture of Olynthos and other cities of Chalkidiki. Olynthos was destroyed and its inhabitants were sold into slavery.
346 BC e. - trip to Thrace. The Thracian king Kersobleptos became a vassal of Macedonia.
346 - 344 BC e. - trip to Central Greece. The destruction of the Phocian cities, the population of which was forcibly relocated to the borders of Macedonia.
343 BC e. - Campaign to Illyria, large booty was taken. The final subjugation of Thessaly, once again Philip changes power there.
342 BC e. - Philip overthrows the Epirus king Arriba and enthrones Alexander of Molosser, the brother of his wife Olympias. Some border areas of Epirus are annexed to Macedonia.
342 - 341 BC e. - campaign in Thrace, the Thracian king Kersobleptos was overthrown and tribute was imposed on the tribes, control was established over the entire Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea.
340 - 339 BC e. - siege of Perinthos and Byzantium, which control the straits to the Black Sea. The eternal enemies, Athens and the Persians, found themselves on the same side, sending help to the besieged. Due to stubborn resistance, Philip is forced to retreat.
339 BC e. - campaign against the Scythians to the banks of the Danube. The Scythian leader Atey fell in the battle:

« Twenty thousand women and children were taken captive, and many livestock were captured; There was no gold or silver found at all. Then I had to believe that the Scythians were really very poor. Twenty thousand of the best mares were sent to Macedonia for breeding horses [of the Scythian breed]».

However, on the way home, the warlike tribes attacked the Macedonians and recaptured all the trophies. " In this battle, Philip was wounded in the thigh, and in such a way that the weapon, passing through Philip’s body, killed his horse.»

Having barely recovered from his wounds, although the lameness remained, the tireless Philip quickly moved to Greece.

Subjugation of Greece

Philip entered Greece not as a conqueror, but at the invitation of the Greeks themselves, to punish the inhabitants of Amfissa in central Greece for their unauthorized seizure of sacred lands. However, after the ruin of Amfissus, the king was in no hurry to leave Greece. He captured a number of cities from where he could easily threaten the main Greek states.

Thanks to the energetic efforts of Demosthenes, a longtime enemy of Philip, and now also one of the leaders of Athens, an anti-Macedonian coalition was formed between a number of cities; Through the efforts of Demosthenes, the strongest of them, Thebes, which was still in alliance with Philip, was attracted to the alliance. The long-standing enmity of Athens and Thebes gave way to a sense of danger from the increased power of Macedonia. The combined forces of these states tried to push the Macedonians out of Greece, but to no avail. In 338 BC. e. A decisive battle took place at Chaeronea, which put an end to the splendor and greatness of ancient Hellas.

The defeated Greeks fled from the battlefield. Anxiety, almost turning into panic, took possession of Athens. To stop the desire to escape, the people's assembly adopted a resolution according to which such actions were considered high treason and punishable by death. Residents began to energetically strengthen the walls of the city, accumulate food, the entire male population was called up for military service, and slaves were promised freedom. However, Philip did not go to Attica, remembering the unsuccessful siege of Byzantium and the Athens fleet of 360 triremes. Having dealt harshly with Thebes, he offered relatively mild peace terms to Athens. The forced peace was accepted, although the mood of the Athenians is indicated by the words of the orator Lycurgus about those who fell on the Chaeronean fields: “ After all, when they lost their lives, Hellas was also enslaved, and the freedom of the rest of the Hellenes was buried along with their bodies.»

Murder

In 337 BC. e. under the auspices of the League of Corinth, Philip actually united Greece and began preparations for the invasion of Persia. Justin tells us best about Philip’s further steps after Chaeronea:

« Philip determined the conditions of peace for all of Greece in accordance with the merits of individual states and formed a common council from all of them, like a single senate. Only the Lacedaemonians treated with contempt both the king and his institutions, considering not peace, but slavery, that peace, which was not agreed upon by the states themselves, but which was granted by the winner. Then the number of auxiliary detachments was determined, which individual states were supposed to deploy either to help the king in the event of an attack on him, or to use them under his command in the event that he himself declared war on someone. And there was no doubt that these preparations were directed against the Persian state... At the beginning of spring, he sent forward three generals to Asia, subject to the Persians: Parmenion, Amyntas and Attalus...»

However, these plans got in the way of an acute family crisis caused by the tsar’s human passions. Precisely, in 337 BC. e. he unexpectedly married young Cleopatra, which raised a group of her relatives led by Uncle Attalus to power. The result was the departure of the offended Olympias to Epirus to her brother, King Alexander of Moloss, and the departure of Philip's son Alexander the Great, first following his mother, and then to the Illyrians. In the end, Philip negotiated a compromise that resulted in Alexander's return. Philip smoothed over the resentment of the king of Epirus for his sister by marrying off his daughter Cleopatra to him.

In the spring of 336 BC. e. Philip sent a 10,000-strong advance detachment to Asia under the command of Parmenion and Attalus and was going to set out on the campaign in person after the wedding celebrations. However, during these celebrations he was killed by his bodyguard Pausanias (see details).

The death of the king was overgrown with various versions, based mainly on guesses and conclusions based on the principle of “who benefits.” The Greeks suspected the indomitable Olympias; The name of Tsarevich Alexander was also mentioned, and in particular they said (according to Plutarch) that he responded to Pausanias’s complaints with a line from the tragedy: “Take revenge on everyone: the father, the bride, the groom...”. Modern scientists also pay attention to the figure of Alexander of Moloss, who had both political and personal interests in the murder. Alexander the Great executed two brothers from Lyncestis for complicity in the assassination attempt, but the reasons for the sentence remained unclear. Then the same Alexander blamed the Persians for the death of his father. History deals with accomplished facts, and one of them is indisputable. Philip's son, Alexander, took the throne of Macedonia, eclipsing his father with his deeds, and with whose name a new era is associated in the history of Hellas and the entire ancient world.

In an ancient burial discovered in 1977 by the Greek archaeologist Manolis Andronikos - a Macedonian tomb in the Greek Vergina, remains allegedly belonging to Philip were discovered, which caused scientific discussion and was subsequently confirmed.

Wives and children

“Philip always took a new wife in each of his wars. In Illyria he took Audatha and had a daughter, Kinana, from her. He also married Phila, the sister of Derda and Mahat. Wanting to lay claim to Thessaly, he fathered children with Thessalian women, one of them was Nikesipolis from Thera, who bore him Thessalonica, the other was Philinna from Larissa, from whom he had Arrhidaea. Further, he acquired the kingdom of the Molossians [Epirus] by marrying Olympias, from whom he had Alexander and Cleopatra. When he subjugated Thrace, the Thracian king Kofelay came to him there, giving him his daughter Meda and a large dowry. Having married her, he thus brought home a second wife after the Olympics. After all these women, he married Cleopatra, with whom he fell in love, the niece of Attalus. Cleopatra gave birth to Philip's daughter Europa."

Philip as a commander

It was Philip who was credited with creating a regular Macedonian army. Previously, the Macedonian king, as Thucydides wrote about Perdiccas II, had at his disposal a permanent cavalry squad numbering about a thousand soldiers and mercenaries, and a foot militia was called up in the event of an external invasion. The number of cavalry increased due to the admission of new “getairs” for military service, thus the king tied the tribal nobility to himself personally, luring them with new lands and gifts. The hetaira cavalry during the time of Alexander the Great consisted of 8 squadrons of 200-250 heavily armed horsemen. Philip was the first in Greece to use cavalry as an independent striking force. At the Battle of Chaeronea, the hetaira under the command of Alexander destroyed the invincible “Sacred Band” of the Thebans.

Thanks to successful wars and tribute from conquered peoples, the foot militia turned into a permanent professional army, as a result of which the creation of the Macedonian phalanx, recruited on a territorial basis, became possible. The Macedonian phalanx in the time of Philip consisted of regiments of approximately 1,500 people and could operate both in a dense monolithic formation and maneuver units, rebuild, change depth and front.

Philip also used other types of troops: shield bearers (guard infantry, more mobile than the phalanx), Thessalian allied cavalry (not much different in armament and numbers from the hetaira), light cavalry from the barbarians, archers, and foot troops of the allies.

Philip accustomed the Macedonians to constant exercise, in peacetime as in real business. So he often forced them to march 300 furlongs, carrying with them helmets, shields, greaves and spears, and, in addition, provisions and other utensils.

The tsar strictly maintained discipline in the troops. When two of his generals drunkenly brought a singer from a brothel to the camp, he expelled both of them from Macedonia.

Thanks to Greek engineers, Philip used mobile towers and throwing machines during the siege of Perinth and Byzantium (340-339 BC). Previously, the Greeks took cities, as in the case of the legendary Troy, mainly by starvation and breaking the walls with battering rams. Philip himself preferred bribery to assault. Plutarch attributes to him the catchphrase - “ a donkey loaded with gold will take an impregnable fortress».

At the beginning of his reign, Philip, at the head of the army, rushed into the thick of the battle: near Methona, an arrow knocked out his eye, the tribals pierced his thigh, and in one of the battles they broke his collarbone. Later, the king controlled his troops, relying on his generals, and tried to use a variety of tactical techniques, and even better, political ones. As Polien writes about Philip: “ He was not so successful in force of arms as in alliances and negotiations... He neither disarmed the vanquished nor destroyed their fortifications, but his main concern was to create rival factions to protect the weak and crush the strong».
Justin repeats: “ Any technique that led to victory was not shameful in his eyes.»

Reviews from contemporaries

Philip left conflicting opinions about himself from his contemporaries. Some people hated him as a strangler of freedom, others saw him as a messiah sent to unite the fragmented Hellas. Cunning and generous at the same time. He won victories, but also suffered defeats. He invited philosophers to the court, and he himself indulged in continuous drunkenness. He had many children, but none of them died due to age.

Philip, despite the years spent in Thebes in his youth, did not in any way resemble an enlightened sovereign, but was similar in morals and way of life to the barbarian kings of neighboring Thrace. Theopompus, who personally observed the life of the Macedonian court under Philip, left the following damning review:

“If there was anyone in all Greece or among the barbarians whose character was distinguished by shamelessness, he was inevitably drawn to the court of King Philip in Macedonia and received the title of “comrade of the king.” For it was the custom of Philip to praise and promote those who wasted their lives in drunkenness and gambling... Some of them, being men, even shaved their bodies clean; and even bearded men did not shy away from mutual defilement. They took with them two or three slaves for lust, at the same time giving themselves up for the same shameful service, so that it would be fair to call them not soldiers, but prostitutes.”

Drunkenness at Philip's court amazed the Greeks. He himself often went into battle drunk and received Athenian ambassadors. The riotous feasts of kings were characteristic of the era of the decomposition of tribal relations, and the refined Greeks, who severely condemned drunkenness and debauchery, also spent time in feasts and wars in their heroic era, which has come down to us in the tales of Homer. Polybius cites the inscription on Philip’s sarcophagus: “ He appreciated the joys of life».

Philip loved a cheerful feast with excessive consumption of undiluted wine, appreciated the jokes of his companions, and for his wit brought him closer not only to the Macedonians, but also to the Greeks. He also valued education; he invited Aristotle to teach and educate Alexander, the heir to the throne. Justin noted Philip's oratory:

“In conversations he was both flattering and cunning, in words he promised more than he delivered... As a speaker he was eloquently inventive and witty; the sophistication of his speech was combined with lightness, and this lightness itself was sophisticated.”

He respected his friends and generously rewarded him, and treated his enemies condescendingly. He was not cruel to the vanquished, he easily released prisoners and granted freedom to slaves. In everyday life and communication he was simple and accessible, although vain. As Justin writes, Philip wanted his subjects to love him and tried to judge him fairly.

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The little girl thought for a minute, and then said very seriously:
– Well, maybe it’s not so bad with them, with adults. But I still miss my friends... I'm little, right? Well, my friends must be small. And adults should only be there sometimes.
Magdalena looked at her in surprise, and unexpectedly grabbed her daughter in her arms and loudly kissed her on both cheeks.
- You're right, honey! Adults should only play with you sometimes. I promise - we will find you the best friend there! You'll just have to wait a little. But you can do this, right? You are the most patient girl in the world, aren’t you?...
This simple, warm dialogue between two lonely loving creatures sank into my very soul!.. And I so wanted to believe that everything would be fine with them! That evil fate would pass them by and that their life would be bright and kind!.. But, unfortunately, just like me, I knew they wouldn’t have it... Why did we pay such a price?!. Why were our destinies so ruthless and cruel?
Before I had time to turn to the North to ask the next question, a new vision immediately appeared, which simply took my breath away...
In the cool shade of a huge old plane tree, four people were sitting on funny low benches. Two of them were still very young and very similar to each other. The third was a gray-haired old man, tall and strong, like a protective rock. On his lap he held a boy who was at most 8-9 years old. And of course, the North didn’t need to explain to me who these people were...

I recognized Radomir immediately, since there was too much left in him of that wonderful, bright young man I saw on my first visit to Meteora. He only matured greatly, became stern and more mature. His blue, piercing eyes now looked at the world carefully and harshly, as if saying: “If you don’t believe me, listen to me again, and if you don’t believe me even then, leave. Life is too valuable to give it to those who are not worth it.”
He was no longer that “loving”, naive boy who thought that he had the power to change any person... that he had the power to change the whole world... Now Radomir was a Warrior. His whole appearance spoke about this - his inner composure, his ascetically thin but very strong body, the persistent fold in the corners of his bright, compressed lips, the piercing gaze of his blue eyes, flashing with a steel tint... And all the incredible strength raging in him, forcing his friends to respect him (and his enemies to reckon with him!) clearly showed in him a real Warrior, and in no case a helpless and soft-hearted God, which the Christian Church he hated so persistently tried to show him. And one more thing... He had an amazing smile, which, apparently, began to appear less and less often on his tired face, exhausted by heavy thoughts. But when she appeared, the whole world around her became kinder, warmed by its wonderful, boundless warmth. This warmth filled all the lonely, deprived souls with happiness!.. And it was in it that the real essence of Radomir was revealed! His true, loving Soul was revealed in him.
Radan (and it was clearly him) looked a little younger and more cheerful (although he was one year older than Radomir). He looked at the world joyfully and fearlessly, as if no misfortune simply could or had the right to touch him. As if any grief should have passed him by... He, undoubtedly, was always the soul of any meeting, illuminating it with his joyful, bright presence, wherever he was. The young man seemed to sparkle with some kind of joyful inner light, which disarmed young and old, forcing him to unconditionally love him and protect him as a most valuable treasure that comes to please the Earth once every thousand years. He was smiling and bright, like the summer sun, with a face covered in soft golden curls, and you wanted to look at him, admire him, forgetting about the cruelty and malice of the world around him...
The third “participant” of the small meeting was very different from both brothers... Firstly, he was much older and wiser. It seemed that he carried the entire unbearable weight of the Earth on his shoulders, somehow managing to live with it and not break down, at the same time, preserving kindness and love for the people around him in his broad soul. Next to him, adults seemed like stupid children who came to the wise Father for advice...

He was very tall and powerful, like a large indestructible fortress, tested by years of hard wars and troubles.... The look of his attentive gray eyes was prickly, but very kind, and the eyes themselves were striking in color - they were incredibly light and bright, as only in early youth, until they are overshadowed by black clouds of bitterness and tears. This powerful, warm man was, of course, the Magus John...
The boy, calmly sitting on the elder’s mighty lap, was thinking very intently about something, not paying attention to those around him. Despite his young age, he seemed very smart and calm, filled with inner strength and light. His face was concentrated and serious, as if the baby at that moment was solving some very important and difficult problem for himself. Just like his father, he was blond and blue-eyed. Only his facial features were surprisingly soft and gentle, more like his mother, Blessed Mary Magdalene.
The midday air around was dry and hot, like a hot furnace. Tired of the heat, the flies flocked to the tree, and lazily crawling along its immense trunk, buzzed annoyingly, disturbing the four interlocutors resting in the wide shade of the old plane tree. Under the kind, hospitably spread branches there was a whiff of pleasant greenery and coolness, the reason for which was the playful narrow stream running briskly right from under the roots of the mighty tree. Bouncing on every pebble and bump, he cheerfully splashed shiny transparent drops and ran on, pleasantly refreshing the surrounding space. With him next to you, you could breathe easily and cleanly. And people, protected from the midday heat, rested, enjoying the cool, precious moisture... It smelled of earth and herbs. The world seemed calm, kind and safe.

Radomir tried to save the Jews...

“I don’t understand them, Teacher...” Radomir said thoughtfully. – During the day they are soft, in the evening they are affectionate, at night they are predatory and insidious... They are changeable and unpredictable. How can I understand them, tell me! I cannot save the people without understanding them... What should I do, Teacher?
John looked at him very affectionately, like a father looks at his beloved son, and finally said in a deep, low voice:
– You know their speech - try to reveal it if you can. For speech is the mirror of their soul. This people were once cursed by our Gods, since they came here to destroy the Earth... We tried to help them by sending you here. And your Duty is to do everything to change their essence, otherwise they will destroy you... And then everyone else alive. And not because they are strong, but only because they are deceitful and cunning, and they strike us like a plague.
– They are far from me, Teacher... Even those who are friends. I can't feel them, I can't open their cold souls.
- Why then do we need them, dad? – suddenly joined the conversation of adults, a small “participant” of the meeting.
– We came to them to save them, Svetodar... To pull the thorn out of their sick heart.
“But you yourself say that they don’t want to.” But is it really possible to treat a patient if he himself refuses to do so?
– Through the mouth of a baby the Truth speaks, Radomir! – Radan, who was still listening, exclaimed. – Think about it, if they themselves don’t want it, can you force people to change?.. And even more so – an entire nation! They are alien to us in their faith, in the concept of Honor... which, in my opinion, they don’t even have. Go away, my brother! They will destroy you. They are not worth a day of your Life! Think about the children... about Magdalene! Think about those who love you!..
Radomir only sadly shook his head, affectionately patting the golden-haired head of his older brother.
“I can’t leave, Radan, I don’t have that right... Even if I don’t manage to help them, I can’t leave.” It will be like running away. I cannot betray my Father, I cannot betray myself...
– People cannot be forced to change if they themselves do not want to. It will just be a lie. They don't need your help, Radomir. They will not accept your teaching. Think about it, brother...
John sadly watched the argument of his beloved disciples, knowing that they were both right, and that neither of them would give up, defending their truth... They were both young and strong, and they both wanted to live, love, watch them grow children, fight for their happiness, for the peace and safety of other worthy people. But fate had its own way. They both went to suffering and, perhaps, even to death, all for the same others, but in this case - unworthy people who hated them and their Teaching, and shamelessly betrayed them. It looked like a farce, an absurd dream... And John did not want to forgive their father, the wise White Magus, who so easily gave up his wonderful, fabulously gifted children for the amusement of the mocking Jews, supposedly to save their deceitful, cruel souls.
“I’m getting old... I’m getting old too quickly already...” John said out loud, having forgotten himself.
All three stared at him in surprise and immediately laughed in unison... who could not be imagined as “old” was John, with his strength and power, enviable even for them, the young.
The vision disappeared. And I so wanted to hold him!.. My soul felt empty and lonely. I didn’t want to part with these courageous people, I didn’t want to return to reality...
– Show me more, North!!! – I begged greedily. “They will help me survive.” Show me more Magdalene...
– What do you want to see, Isidora?
The North was patient and gentle, like an older brother seeing off his beloved sister. The only difference was that he saw me off forever...
- Tell me, Sever, how did it happen that Magdalene had two children, and this was not mentioned anywhere? There had to be something left somewhere?
- Well, of course, this was mentioned, Isidora! And not only was it mentioned... The best artists once painted pictures depicting Magdalene proudly awaiting her heir. Only little of this remains, unfortunately. The Church could not allow such a “scandal”, since it did not fit into the “history” it was creating... But something still remains to this day, apparently due to the oversight or inattention of those in power, the Thinking Dark Ones...

- How could they allow this to happen? I always thought that the Thinking Dark Ones were smart and careful enough? This could help people see the lies presented to them by the “holy” fathers of the church. Is not it?
“Has anyone thought about it, Isidora?” I sadly shook my head. – You see... People don’t give them too much trouble...
– Can you show me how she taught, North?..
Like a child, I was in a hurry to ask questions, jumping from topic to topic, wanting to see and learn as much as possible in the time allotted to me, which had already almost completely expired...
And then I saw Magdalene again... People were sitting around her. They were of different ages - young and old, all without exception long-haired, dressed in simple dark blue clothes. Magdalene was dressed in white, with her hair flowing over her shoulders, covering her with a wonderful golden cloak. The room in which they were all at that moment resembled the work of a crazy architect who embodied his most amazing dream in frozen stone...

As I later found out, the cave is indeed called Cathedral and still exists.
Caves of Longrives, Languedoc

It was a cave that looked like a majestic cathedral... which, by a strange whim, nature had built there for some reason. The height of this “cathedral” reached incredible proportions, carried straight “into the sky” by amazing, “crying” stone icicles, which, somewhere above, merged into a miraculous pattern, and again fell down, hovering right above the heads of those sitting... Natural lighting in the cave , of course, it wasn’t. Also, the candles were not burning, and the weak daylight, as usual, did not seep through the cracks. But despite this, a pleasant and uniform golden glow softly spread throughout the entire unusual “hall”, coming from nowhere and allowing free communication and even reading...
The people sitting around Magdalena very intently and carefully watched Magdalena’s outstretched arms. Suddenly, a bright golden glow began to appear between her palms, which, becoming more and more dense, began to condense into a huge bluish ball, which hardened before our eyes until it became like... a planet!..
“North, what is this?..” I whispered in surprise. – This is our Earth, isn’t it?
But he only smiled in a friendly manner, without answering or explaining anything. And I continued to look in fascination at the amazing woman, in whose hands the planets were so simply and easily “born”!.. I had never seen the Earth from the outside, only in drawings, but for some reason I was absolutely sure that it was her. And at this time a second planet had already appeared, then another... and another... They circled around Magdalena, as if magical, and she calmly, with a smile, explained something to the audience, seemingly not getting tired at all and not paying attention to surprised faces, as if she was talking about something ordinary and everyday. I understood - she taught them astronomy!.. For which even in my time they did not “pat” on the head, and for which one could still just as easily end up straight in the fire... And Magdalena playfully taught this even then - for five hundred long years ago!!!
The vision disappeared. And I, completely stunned, could not wake up to ask Sever my next question...
– Who were these people, North? They look the same and strange... They seem to be united by a common energy wave. And their clothes are the same, like monks. Who are they?..
– Oh, these are the famous Cathars, Isidora, or as they are also called – the pure ones. People gave them this name because of the severity of their morals, the purity of their views and the honesty of their thoughts. The Cathars themselves called themselves “children” or “Knights of Magdalene”... which in reality they were. This people was truly CREATED by her, so that after (when she no longer exists) he would bring Light and Knowledge to people, contrasting this with the false teaching of the “holy” church. They were Magdalene's most faithful and most talented students. Amazing and pure people - they brought HER teaching to the world, devoting their lives to it. They became magicians and alchemists, wizards and scientists, doctors and philosophers... The secrets of the universe were subordinated to them, they became the keepers of the wisdom of Radomir - the hidden Knowledge of our distant ancestors, our Gods... And also, they all carried in their hearts an undying love for their “beautiful Lady”... Golden Mary... their Bright and mysterious Magdalene... The Cathars sacredly kept in their hearts the true story of Radomir’s interrupted life, and vowed to save his wife and children, no matter what the cost... For which, later, two centuries later, every single one of them paid with their lives... This is a truly great and very sad story, Isidora. I'm not sure if you need to listen to it.
– But I want to know about them, Sever!.. Tell me, where did they come from, all gifted? Are you from the Valley of the Magicians, by any chance?
- Well, of course, Isidora, because this was their home! And it was there that Magdalene returned. But it would be wrong to give credit only to the gifted. After all, even simple peasants learned reading and writing from the Cathars. Many of them knew the poets by heart, no matter how crazy it may sound to you now. It was a real Dreamland. The Land of Light, Knowledge and Faith, created by Magdalene. And this Faith spread surprisingly quickly, attracting thousands of new “Cathars” into its ranks, who were just as ardently ready to defend the Knowledge they gave as the Golden Mary who gave it... The teaching of Magdalene swept through the countries like a hurricane, leaving no one aside. one thinking person. Aristocrats and scientists, artists and shepherds, farmers and kings joined the ranks of the Cathars. Those who had easily gave their wealth and lands to the Qatari “church”, so that its great power would be strengthened, and so that the Light of its Soul would spread throughout the entire Earth.
– Sorry to interrupt, Sever, but did the Cathars also have their own church?.. Was their teaching also a religion?
– The concept of “church” is very diverse, Isidora. This was not the church as we understand it. The Cathar Church was Magdalene herself and her Spiritual Temple. That is, the Temple of Light and Knowledge, like the Temple of Radomir, the knights of which at first were the Templars (King of Jerusalem Baldwin II called the Knights of the Temple Templars. Temple - in French - Temple.) They did not have a specific building in which people would come to pray . The Cathar Church was in their soul. But it still had its own apostles (or, as they were called, the Perfect Ones), the first of which, of course, was Magdalene. Perfect were the people who reached the highest levels of Knowledge and devoted themselves to absolute service to it. They continuously improved their Spirit, almost giving up physical food and physical love. The Perfect served people, teaching them their knowledge, treating those in need and protecting their charges from the tenacious and dangerous clutches of the Catholic Church. They were amazing and selfless people, ready to the last to defend their Knowledge and Faith, and Magdalene, who gave it to them. It is a pity that there are almost no Cathar diaries left. All that we have left are the records of Radomir and Magdalene, but they do not give us the exact events of the last tragic days of the courageous and bright Qatari people, since these events took place two hundred years after the death of Jesus and Magdalene.
– Tell me, Sever, how did Golden Maria die? Who had such a black spirit to raise his dirty hand against this wonderful woman?..
– Church, Isidora... Unfortunately, still the same church!.. She became furious, seeing in the face of the Cathars the most dangerous enemy, who gradually and very confidently occupied her “holy” place. And realizing her imminent collapse, she no longer calmed down, trying in any way to destroy Magdalene, rightly considering her the main culprit of the “criminal” teaching and hoping that without their Guiding Star the Cathars would disappear, having neither a leader nor a Faith. The Church did not understand how strong and deep the Teaching and Knowledge of the Cathars was. That it was not a blind “faith”, but a way of their life, the essence of WHY they lived. And therefore, no matter how hard the “holy” fathers tried to win over the Cathars, in the Pure Land of Occitania there was not even an inch of land for the deceitful and criminal Christian church...
– It turns out that it wasn’t only Karaffa who did this?!.. Has this really always been the case, Sever?..
I was seized with real horror when I imagined the whole global picture of betrayals, lies and murders that the “holy” and “all-forgiving” Christian faith committed in an attempt to survive!..
– How is this possible?! How could you watch and not interfere? How could you live with this without going crazy, North?!!
He did not answer, knowing well that this was just a “cry from the soul” of an indignant person. And I knew his answer very well... Therefore, we were silent for some time, like lonely souls lost in the dark...
– So how did Golden Maria die? Can you tell me about this? – Unable to withstand the prolonged pause, I asked again.
North nodded sadly, showing that he understood...
– After the teaching of Magdalene occupied most of the then Europe, Pope Urban II decided that further delay would be like death for his beloved “most holy” church. Having thoroughly thought through his diabolical plan, he, without delay, sent two faithful “fosterlings” of Rome to Occitania, whom Magdalene knew as “friends” of the Cathars. And again, as happened too often, wonderful, bright people became victims of their purity and honor... Magdalene accepted them into her friendly arms, generously providing them with food and shelter. And although her bitter fate taught her not to be a very trusting person, it was impossible to suspect anyone, otherwise her life and her Teaching would have lost all meaning. She still believed in GOOD, no matter what...
And then I saw them again... At the exit of the cave stood Magdalena and her golden-haired daughter, who at that moment was already 11-12 years old. They stood hugging each other, still alike and beautiful, and watched the last breathtaking moment of the amazing Occitan sunset. The cave at the entrance to which they stood was located very high in the mountains, opening directly onto a steep cliff. And in the distance, as far as the eye could see, shrouded in the haze of the evening fog, the mountains shone majestically blue. Proudly frozen, like giant monuments to eternity and nature, they remembered the wisdom and courage of Man... But not the one who lived now, killing and betraying, ruling and destroying. And they remembered a strong and creative Man, loving and proud, who created a wonderful kingdom of Mind and Light on this small but beautiful piece of Earth...

Right in front of Magdalene, at the very top of a man-made hill, stood her favorite castle - the Montsegur fortress... For more than eight long years, this friendly and impregnable fortress was her real home... The home of her beloved daughter, the refuge of her friends and the Temple of her love. Montsegur housed her memories - the most cherished relics of her life, her teachings and her family. All her Perfects gathered there to purify their Souls and gain Life-Giving Power. There she spent her most precious hours, the most tranquil from the bustle of the world...
- Let's go, my dear, the sun has already set anyway. Now we will rejoice in him tomorrow. And now we must greet our guests. You love to communicate, don’t you? So you'll keep them occupied until I'm free.
“I don’t like them, Mom.” Their eyes are evil... And their hands are running all the time, as if they cannot find a place for themselves. They are not good people, mommy. Could you ask them to leave?
Magdalena laughed loudly, hugging her daughter tenderly.
- Well, here’s another thing, my suspicion! How can we kick guests out? That’s why they are “guests”, to bother us with their presence! You know that, don't you? So be patient, my dear, until they go home. And there, you see, they will never return again. And you won't have to borrow them.
Mother and daughter returned inside the cave, which now looked like a small chapel, with a funny stone “altar” in the corner.

Suddenly, in complete silence, pebbles crunched loudly on the right side, and two people appeared at the entrance to the room. Apparently, for some reason, they tried very hard to walk silently, and now they seemed to me something very unpleasant. Only I couldn’t determine what. For some reason, I immediately realized that these were Magdalene’s uninvited guests... She shuddered, but immediately smiled welcomingly and, turning to the elder, asked:
- How did you find me, Ramon? Who showed you the entrance to this cave?
The man named Ramon smiled coldly and, trying to seem pleasant, answered in a falsely affectionate manner:
– Oh, don’t be angry, bright Mary! You know, I have a lot of friends here... I was just looking for you to talk about something important.
– This place is sacred to me, Ramon. It is not for worldly meetings and conversations. And except for my daughter, no one could bring you here, and she, as you see, is now with me. You were following us... Why?
I suddenly suddenly felt an icy cold pull down my back - something was wrong, something was about to happen... I wildly wanted to scream!.. To warn somehow... But I understood that I can’t help them, I can’t reach out across the centuries, I can’t intervene... I don’t have that right. The events unfolding in front of me took place a very long time ago, and even if I could help now, it would already be an interference in history. Since, if I had saved Magdalene, many destinies would have changed, and perhaps the entire subsequent Earthly history would have been completely different... Only two people on Earth had the right to do this, and I, unfortunately, was not one of them... Then everything happened too quickly... It seemed that it wasn’t even real... Smiling coldly, a man named Ramon suddenly grabbed Magdalena by the hair from behind and with lightning speed plunged a narrow long dagger into her open neck... A crunch was heard. Without even having time to understand what was happening, Magdalena hung on his arm, not showing any signs of life. Scarlet blood streamed down her snow-white robe... The daughter screamed shrilly, trying to escape from the hands of the second monster, who grabbed her fragile shoulders. But her scream was cut off - just like a rabbit’s thin neck was broken. The girl fell next to the body of her unfortunate mother, in whose heart the crazy man was still endlessly stabbing his bloody dagger... It seemed that he had lost his mind and could not stop... Or was his hatred so strong that it controlled his criminal hand? .. Finally, it's over. Without even looking back at what they had done, the two heartless killers disappeared into the cave without a trace.

King Philip II of Ancient Macedonia took the throne very young - at 23 years old. In 359

BC e. Macedonia was threatened by an Illyrian invasion. After the death of King Perdikkas III, the country was left without a ruler, with the exception of Perdikkas III's young son Amyntas. “Compassionate” neighbors - Athens, whose influence extended to the north of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Thracians were ready to subordinate a small and weak state to their influence. However, the brother of the murdered king Philip managed to settle the matter by paying off the Thracians with gold, and from Athens with the city of Amphipolis, which they extremely needed. Thanks to this, the people proclaimed Philip king instead of the young Amyntas.

Realizing the need to expand the state, Philip started with the army. In his youth, having been a hostage in Thebes, he learned something from one of the best strategists of that time, Epaminondas. It was to Philip II that Macedonia owed the famous phalanx, which only the Roman legion could subsequently surpass. The tsar also paid a lot of attention to the artillery of that time, for the creation of which he invited the best mechanics from Syracuse.

Having such a strong army in reserve, Philip II could seriously think about turning little Macedonia into a rich and influential state. Athens bitterly regretted that, flattered by the rich bribe, they ignored such a nimble young man. Philip took Amphipolis from them, taking a number of other cities subject to Athens, and immediately gave some of them to his eastern neighbors - the Chalcidian League led by Olynthos, preventing their intention to support

Athens. Then Philip, taking advantage of the dispute between Athens and Thebes over the island of Euboea, captured it, along with the Pangean region and gold mines. Using the wealth that was in his hands, Philip began to build a fleet and, through trade, began to actively influence Greece. As a result of the rapid actions of Philip II, the Chalkidian Union was completely cut off from Central Greece.

In the 4th century. BC e. Greece was weakened by the Peloponnesian War and the beginning of the disintegration of the polis. Not a single Greek state could lay claim to the role of a unifier or peacemaker. The Greeks made claims to each other with or without reason, each time creating new alliances and new enemies. In 355 BC. e. The Holy War broke out and lasted until 346 BC. e. Residents of the city of Phokis unexpectedly seized the lands belonging to the temple of Apollo. Thebes tried to curb the sacrileges. However, the Phocians responded by seizing the temple of Apollo at Delphi and using the stolen money to hire an army of 20,000. Since Macedonia and Hellas believed in the same gods, Philip II, at the request of Thebes, immediately acted as an ardent defender of the offended Apollo. Despite a number of setbacks, Philip defeated the Phocian troops in Thessaly (352 BC) and liberated Delphi. 3 thousand prisoners were drowned in the sea to atone for sacrilege, and the body of their deceased military leader Onomarchus was crucified on the cross. Now was the time to punish the criminal city of Phocis. However, Athens, quickly realizing that the Macedonians simply wanted to get into Central Greece, stood up to defend the only route - the Thermopylae Pass.

Now the Athenians, who valued the remnants of their influence in Thrace, agreed to make peace with Macedonia (Philocrates' peace - 346 BC) and withdrew the army from Thermopylae. All cunning plans to save Phocis were shattered by the deceit, treachery and gold of the Macedonian. Phokis fell, and their votes in Amphictyony (the union of Greek city-states - guardians of the temple of Apollo in Delphi) went to Philip, who now, as a Hellenic, could intervene in Greek affairs legally. In addition, part of the Greek fortifications on the border of Central Greece and Thermopylae passed to the Macedonian. From now on, the passage to Central Greece was always open to its new owner.

The usual Hellenic world by the 4th century BC. e. began to collapse. And then, completely unexpectedly, Heraclides appeared - a descendant of Hercules (namely, Philip II counted his family from him), who could take on the role of a unifier or a universal enemy, which would also unite the policies. After the victory over Phocis, Philip's popularity in the cities increased.

In all policies there was a struggle between supporters and opponents of the Macedonian king.

The best orators of Athens, Isocrates and Aeschines, supported Philip, believing that he was the great personality who would revive ancient Hellas if he united it under his rule. For the sake of the greatness of Greece, they were ready to say goodbye to the independence of their city. Isocrates argued that Philip's hegemony would be a blessing because he himself was a Hellenic and a descendant of Hercules. Philip II generously presented his supporters with gold, rightly believing that “there is no city wall so high that a donkey loaded with gold could not step over it.”

Philip's opponent, the leader of the anti-Macedonian party, the Athenian orator Demosthenes, called on the Greeks to fight against the aggressive policy of the Macedonian king. He called Philip a treacherous barbarian seeking to take over Greece. However, it was not for the Greeks, who had long forgotten what honor was, to reproach Philip for treachery, dishonesty, deceit, dishonesty and lust for power. How many loyal allies and opponents who believed the false promises of Athens left on its historical path, striving for power...

Philip II.

Ivory. IV century BC e. Found in Vergina (Greece). in the royal tomb/family crypt of the Macedonian kings).

Alexander the Great. Ivory. IV century BC e. Found in Vergina (Greece). in the royal tomb (family crypt of the Macedonian kings).

The fissians, supported by Athens, encroached on the lands of the Delphic temple. Amphictyony, at the suggestion of Aeschines, a supporter of Macedonia, remembering the zealous defender of Delphi, turned to Philip II with a request to intercede for the offended deity. Philip rushed faster than the wind to Central Greece, effortlessly punished Amphissa and, unexpectedly for everyone and even for his Thessalian friends, took possession of the city of Elatea near Kefissus, which was the key to Boeotia and Attica.

The Battle of Chaeronea ended the conquest of Greece by Macedonia. All the Greeks, and especially the Athenians, expected a bloody massacre and mourned their ancient cities in advance. But Philip treated the vanquished surprisingly gently. He did not demand surrender and offered them an alliance. Greece looked at such a diplomatic, educated and generous Philip with admiration. The offensive nickname “barbarian” was forgotten, and everyone immediately remembered that he was Heraclides.

In 337 BC. e. On the initiative of Philip II, a pan-Greek “congress” was convened in Corinth (Pericles’ dream came true!), which formed the Panhellenic Union - only Sparta was not included in it - and declared Philip the hegemon of Greece. And in vain Demosthenes in his time frightened the Athenians: “He (Philip) most of all hates our free institutions... after all, he knows very well that if he subjugates all nations to his power, he will not firmly own anything until You have democracy." Philip left the political system of the city-states unchanged, and the proclaimed Sacred Peace (finally peace!) forbade them to interfere in each other's affairs. Moreover, for the triumph of the pan-Greek idea and the unity of the Greeks, the Panhellenic Union declared war on the Iranian power, appointing Philip II as autocrat strategist.

But he did not have time to start a new campaign. In 336 BC. e. Philip was killed. Alexander, who was so little like his father, was to continue his work. If Philip was a genius of diplomacy, then Alexander became the deity of war.

Alexander was born at the end of July 356 BC. e. in the capital of Macedonia - Pella. The son of a fan of Greek culture, Alexander, in addition to military affairs and horse riding, studied music, mathematics and Greek literature. The young Macedonian’s admiration for the great creations of the Hellenes was so great that he even carried Homer’s Iliad with him on campaigns and placed it at night at his head next to his sword. True, he was inspired not by poetry, but by the exploits of heroes. But even Greek literature could not soften the passionate and unbridled character of Alexander - he always compared himself with Achilles, from whom he descended from his mother, the frantic and power-hungry Olympias. The famous philosopher Aristotle, who, according to his father’s choice, was supposed to become the mentor of a 13-year-old teenager, could not cope with him either.

In addition to ethics and philosophy, Aristotle taught Alexander the science of state. But he was far from the ideal of a great teacher. Macedonia was full of noble families who sought to control the king. After the death of Philip II, Greece decided to win its freedom.

Alexander began his reign by destroying all possible contenders for the throne, and then reminded Hellas of Macedonian rule. The initial demonstration of force at the borders made the Greeks come to their senses, and they recognized Alexander as having all the rights of the murdered Philip II: he was elected archon, strategist-autocrat of Hellas, and recognized as hegemon. Alexander calmly departed north to fight the barbarians.

However, Thebes was the first to break down, instigated by Athens, who had a low opinion of the abilities of the young king. It’s one thing to defeat some barbarian tribes, and another to take one of the most powerful cities in Greece. Can the boy do it? It turned out that yes. Alexander's army quickly marched (in 13 days) from Thrace to Thebes. And, despite the courageous resistance of the best Theban army in Greece, the city was taken. Alexander, in the words of the ancient Greek historian Diodorus, “went wild in soul.” All residents of the city, with the exception of priests and supporters of the Macedonians, were sold into slavery (30 thousand people), the male population was exterminated, and the city itself was razed to the ground. Apparently, as a tribute to Greek literature, the king left only the house of the poet Pindar in the middle of an open field. Only then did the Greeks truly appreciate the velvet policy of Philip II, when Alexander showed them the “iron fist”.

Now that the Greeks, who had lost all hope, were pacified, Alexander finally decided to start a war with the Achaemenid power. This war was supposed to be perceived by the Greeks as revenge for the desecration of Hellenic shrines in the previous Greco-Persian wars. The desire of Alexander, who “dreamed of inheriting a power fraught not with luxury, pleasure and wealth, but with battles, wars and the struggle for glory” (Plutarch), seems to have been close to fulfillment. To cut off his way back, Alexander distributed most of his lands in Macedonia and hopefully turned his glory-hungry gaze to Iran. In 334 BC

1 Macedonian kingdom and its dependent territories.

2. The territory of the Persian kingdom by 334 BC. e.

Directions of campaigns of Alexander the Great;

3) to Asia Minor and Egypt;

4) to the center of Persia;

5) to Central Asia and India:

6) return to Babylon.

7. Places of the most important battles.

8. The most important cities founded by Alexander the Great.

n. e. Alexander threw his spear at the Asian coast, thus declaring his rights to this territory, and landed on the coast of Asia Minor with an army of 50,000.

Alexander was so eager to fight that, having met the enemy near the Granik River, he immediately ordered his cavalry to swim across to the other (steep!) bank of the river and attack the enemy (according to experienced commanders, this was a crazy plan). The battle that began in the water with the Iranians who did not expect such pressure was won! Inspired by his first success, the commander, robbing and ruining everything in his path, rushed like a whirlwind through the cities of Asia Minor, subjugating them and establishing democratic rule (but without granting them independence, however).

At Gordion, Alexander showed everyone how he solves complex problems. In this city there was a famous cart, to the pole of which, according to legend, the Phrygian king Gordius tied a yoke with a tangled knot (Gordian knot). The prophecy said that whoever untied this knot would gain dominion over the world. Having fiddled with the intricacies of the ropes, Alexander, seeing the futility of his attempts, in a rage cut the knot with his sword.

Having won the victory over the Athenians at Chaeronea, Philip was very proud of himself, but so that vanity would not blind him too much, he ordered his servant to say to him every morning: “King, you are a man.”

The Greeks did not stop making fun of Alexander, who wanted to convince everyone that he was not a man, but a deity. When one day it became known that Alexander was ill and the doctor prescribed him a healing drink, they repeated the words of a certain mocker: “The hopes of our deity are at the bottom of the cup.”

The mother of Alexander the Great, Olympias, having learned that her son had been lying without burial for a long time, grieved and said: “Child, you strived for the share of the celestials, now you are denied even what all people on earth receive - a grave.”

The Iranian king Darius III Kodoman sought a meeting with the invader. Iran has long been famous for its cavalry, which was strong on flat ground. The Iranian king, no less than Alexander, was confident in his abilities and was in such a hurry to meet the uninvited guest that, without listening to any advice, he entered the rugged terrain of Cilicia, deciding to go to Alexander’s rear. Now the Iranians could not take advantage of their famous cavalry and even numerical superiority (according to ancient historians, the army of Darius III was three times larger than the Macedonian one).

November 12, 333 BC e. The battle took place on the Pindar River near the city of Issus. The Macedonian troops slowly approached the enemy and immediately launched an attack. The Iranians began to retreat under the pressure of the Greeks and Macedonians. Alexander, who was fighting in the front ranks, noticed Darius on a gilded chariot in the center of the army and rushed towards him, not noticing the wound and destroying everything in his path. Fast, frantic, impetuous, he sought to finish the matter with one blow - the single combat of the kings should decide which of them should rule in Asia. But Darius, standing among the fighting and dying bodyguards and nobles, seeing the Macedonian king so close to the battle, was the first of his army to rush to safety. After this, even the left flank of the Iranians, which had successfully pressed the Macedonians, fled. Panic began, which ended in a crushing defeat for the Iranian army. The entire family of the Iranian king was captured by Alexander.

Entering Darius’s camp tent, which rather resembled a palace, the half-poor Macedonian king, who had not seen such luxury in meager Greece, said in puzzlement: “This, apparently, is what it means to reign.”

The escaped Iranian king was not dangerous in the near future, and Alexander went to Egypt. Along the way, he easily took the luxurious Damascus, in which Darius’s campaign treasury remained. This is where the Macedonians got a taste for luxury. But the commander did not allow them to enjoy the eastern bliss and the shine of gold. He impatiently drove the army forward. On his way to Egypt, Alexander, accustomed to the quick surrender of cities, was unexpectedly stopped by the rebellious inhabitants of the city of Tyre, who stubbornly refused to surrender. Tyre forced the Macedonians into a long siege. Even the god Apollo, according to legend, who appeared in a dream to the staunch townspeople, could not persuade them to surrender to Alexander. The inhabitants of Tire recognized Apollo as a traitor, entangled his statue with ropes, nailing him to the base (so that he would not go to Alexander), and called him an “Alexandrist.” However, these measures did not help, and after a seven-month siege the city was taken. Unforgiving of resistance, the enraged Alexander ordered the execution of 6 thousand prisoners, crucified 2 thousand and sold 30 thousand into slavery. The city of Gaza suffered the same fate.

While Alexander carried out reprisals, Darius unsuccessfully sent assassins to him. When will he not

managed to eliminate the rival, Darius sent envoys to Alexander with a proposal for peace and alliance. But in response, the Macedonian king demanded unconditional surrender. The ambassadors left with nothing, and Alexander went to Egypt.

Egypt, long hostile to Iran, surrendered without resistance. Alexander was proclaimed the son of the god Amun and “king of Lower and Upper Egypt.”

The newly-minted pharaoh did not remain in Egypt for long. Darius III again came out against the “son of god” with a huge army. The two armies met near the village of Gaugamela (331 BC). This time, Alexander answered all the amazed questions of his friends, who were accustomed to his attacks on the move: “I don’t steal victory.” The king ordered the soldiers to rest. And Darius with his million-strong army (according to the ancient Greek historian Arrian) stood all night, waiting for an attack. And when the rested Macedonians went on the attack, the Iranian army, exhausted by the night stand, offered them weak resistance. Their large numbers turned out to be a disadvantage for them: due to their crowding, the Iranians were an excellent target for the Macedonian spears and swords. And again, finding himself in the thick of the battle, Darius III was the first to break down. Alexander, rushing towards him, only managed to notice the retreating back of the king. With general panic in the Iranian army, the beating of the retreating began.

At the Battle of Gaugamela, the Macedonians inflicted a decisive defeat on Iranian troops. After this battle, only one ruler remained in Asia - Alexander the Great, who sat on the Achaemenid throne in Susa. The treasures of Susa were piled at the feet of the king: the royal treasury of Darius III of 50 thousand talents (1310 tons) of silver, Greek valuables, tribute from almost all the peoples of the world.

But Susa and Babylon were not the final goal of Alexander’s Iranian campaign. There still remained the capital of Persia - Persepolis. Two capitals of the same state had different fates! If Alexander did not touch a single stone in Babylon, then he gave Persepolis to his army for plunder. The swords of the Greeks and Macedonians knew no mercy. To top it all off, inflamed by wine and the unreasonable speeches of the hetaera Thais from Athens, Alexander ordered the city to be set on fire.

After the conquest of the Achaemenid capital, Alexander released his Greek allies. The Hellenic war with Iran is over. The war of Alexander the Great began for dominion over the ecumene - the world known to people.

But while Darius III was alive, Alexander could not reign calmly. The Iranian king still had enough satrapies - regions, sometimes including entire countries, where he could again gather troops. And Alexander rushed in pursuit of Darius, simultaneously subjugating the remaining parts of the Achaemenid power. In July 330 BC. e. the king caught up with his

Alexander the Great and Darius III.

opponent. With joyful exclamations, urging his horse on, he literally flew to the place where he was pointed, and finally overtook Darius. He was dying, abandoned by everyone, treacherously defeated by his satrap Bess. Getting off his horse, Alexander tried to hear his death rattle. When Darius III gave up the ghost, Alexander announced to the army that the Iranian king had made him his successor. It was not in vain that he sat on the throne of the Achaemenids, made sacrifices to the god Marduk in Babylon and ordered the restoration of the tomb of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian state! From now on, Alexander became the "legitimate" successor and heir to Darius III on the Iranian throne.

Alexander learned with amazing ease the barbaric methods of government and the barbaric habits of the former rulers of Iran. After all, he was not a Greek, but only touched Greek culture, but did not absorb it, despite his love for Homer. He was much more attracted by the omnipotence and permissiveness of the ruler of Asia than by the simplicity and unpretentiousness of the king of Macedonia. Alexander put on Persian court clothes, which caused a lot of hidden fun and sidelong glances from the Macedonians; acquired a harem of 300 concubines. He demanded that people prostrate themselves before him, that old friends ask for an audience with him. Woe to those who did not accept the king's gifts - he never forgave this. He bestowed a generous hand on those who thirsted for riches. The ruler of Asia organized magnificent receptions and ordered himself to be revered everywhere as a god.

The Macedonian nobility, who tried to criticize the “divine” Alexander, paid for their arrogance: the executions of the commanders Permenion and Philots silenced them. Unrestrained and stubborn, Alexander could not stand the attempt on his royal dignity - the victim of his unbridledness and despotism was Cleitus, his childhood friend, who saved his life in the Battle of Granicus. Enraged by Cleitus's impudent speeches, the king killed him at the feast.

But the luxurious court and magnificent ceremonies could not deter Alexander, whose greedy gaze, not having time to look at what he had acquired, was already striving for new lands.

The reason for new campaigns was that the murderer of Darius III, Bessus, also proclaimed himself king of Asia. Alexander's army, with difficulty crossing the mountains, occupied Bactria (Afghanistan) and, with incredible difficulties, overcoming the waterless desert, entered Sogdiana. Bess was captured and died under terrible torture.

In Central Asia, Alexander showed himself to be even less humane than before: Branchida, Central Asian Gaza, Cyropol were wiped off the face of the earth. Even the trees were not spared by the swords of the ruler of Asia, who left behind a bare desert instead of oases. This ancient land has long remembered the heavy hand of Alexander the Great! This unfaithful student of the Greek philosophers turned out to be worse than the barbarians. However, Alexander’s furious temper did not spare philosophers either: the philosopher Callisthenes, who dared

criticize his Ostpolitik, died in prison.

From devastated Central Asia, Alexander the Great went to fabulous India (327 BC). Having conquered Punjab and founded the cities of Nicaea and Bucephalia, Alexander rushed across the Indus to the last, as he hoped, Eastern Sea. But the victorious march was stopped by his own troops. The Macedonians, who for eight years tirelessly conquered the inhabited world for Alexander, could not stand it. They refused to cross the river Gephasis (Bias) before the Ganges valley (326 BC). Neither threats, nor persuasion, nor appeals to the gods and military honor, the king could force his soldiers to take even a step forward. And the ruler of Asia turned back. But finally, for the edification and intimidation of descendants, he ordered to leave a “camp of giants” at the site of the last site. Huge tents, weapons, stables and 12 grandiose altars were supposed to convince everyone that giants stayed here.

But Alexander did not go back the old way - he decided to reach the ocean, if not in the east, then in the south. Macedonian troops, descending the Indus, conquered cities on its banks and destroyed the inhabitants.

Having reached the treasured expanse of the Indian Ocean, Alexander decided to return by land with part of his troops, and sent his friend and military leader Nearchus with another part of the army to get home by sea. Perhaps later Alexander bitterly regretted that he had chosen such a path for himself. His road lay through the hot, treacherous and waterless sands of Southeastern Iran. Three quarters of the victorious army remained in the burning sands of the Gedrosia desert.

Having entered his domain, Alexander learned that not everything was calm in his huge kingdom. Many satraps, who came to him from Darius III and were left by the king at their posts, willingly believing the rumor about the death of Alexander, decided to form their own states. Many heads were rolled by these newly-minted kings and garrison commanders, guilty of abuse of power. But Alexander was never able to establish final order in his huge power. He defeated the Iranian power, taking advantage of its main weakness - fragmentation, but did not eradicate this vice.

Alexander's army now ceased to be purely Greek - more than half of it consisted of residents of conquered countries. Even the highest military positions could be obtained by Iranians.

Alexander the Great made Babylon the capital of his state. The new cities founded by Alexander were to become the support of the Greco-Macedonian rulers in Asia. A huge power, created as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great, stretched from the Danube to the Indus and was the largest state of the Ancient World.

Battle of the Persians with the Greeks.

In 324 BC. e. Alexander began to prepare for new campaigns. His next victim was to be the Mediterranean: Carthage, North Africa, Sicily, Spain, Italy. Alexander was going to send the fleet of Nearchus to explore the western coast of Africa, which subsequently, having gone to fulfill Alexander’s behest, never returned.

But the king did not have time to complete what he started. June 23, 323 BC e. Alexander the Great, ruler of half the world, died of a fever in Babylon without realizing all his plans. After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire, deprived of a strong internal connection, collapsed like a house of cards. His commanders divided the world among themselves, and the coffin with Alexander’s body was taken to his part of the domain by the satrap of Egypt Ptolemy Lagus, who made Alexander the patron god of his clan (see article “Hellenistic states”).

A long memory has remained throughout the centuries about Alexander the Great. And the reason for this is not his power, which collapsed immediately after his death. He was not the founder of a new dynasty either: his two sons - Alexander and Hercules - died young in bloody feuds. His youth and the ease with which he conquered half the world aroused admiration and envy. How many future great commanders repeated the words of Alexander: “20 years - and nothing for immortality!” Caesar thought with admiration about the amazing fate of Alexander the Great. Napoleon and Suvorov read books about his campaigns. How many legends circulated around the world, and how many eastern rulers traced their lineage to Iskander the Two-horned (as Alexander was called in the East). Many of the cities he founded (more than 30) in different parts of the world, bearing his name, were reminiscent of great conquests. Some of them have survived to this day: Iskenderun (Alexandria under Issus), Al-Iskandaria (Alexandria of Egypt), Herat (Alexandria in Aria), Kandahar (Alexandria in Arachosia), Khojent (Extreme Alexandria).

And let the Greeks, whom the king forced to honor himself as an Olympian, mockingly declared: “Let us allow Alexander, if he so desires, to call himself a god.” He became one after all. He became an idol of young minds, the embodiment of luck, a legend and an amazing reality for his contemporaries and descendants.

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Ancient Macedonia. Reign of Philip II. Philip, King of Macedon The Campaigns of Philip II of Macedon

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